A Week of Good News!

Both Maisy and I received great news this week! (Finally. Last month was hard.)

Maisy's Health

Maisy on her 7th birthday earlier this month.

Maisy had a follow-up appointment with the neurologist at the U of MN on Monday. He saw her during her first hospitalization for immune-mediated inflammatory disease of the spinal cord. Although Maisy really, really, really did not want to enter the vet clinic at the U (and really, who can blame her?), she was a good dog for her exam. Perhaps a bit more drama-queen-y than usual, but she didn't try to bite anyone, so I'm calling it a success.

The neurologist was pleased with her quick recovery and said that I could treat her the way I normally do- no activity restrictions! She does tire a bit easier now, but that's largely because she isn't in the same condition as she was before all this. She will continue on daily steroids (down from twice a day) for three weeks, and then will take 5mg of prednisone every other day for 4-5 months.

Maisy has had no appreciable side effects from the steroids. Some dogs get thirstier (and thus need to pee more); this hasn't happened with Maisy. Some dogs will have behavioral effects (heck, I get incredibly grumpy when I'm on high doses of steroids), but Maisy hasn't. If anything, she's friendlier. About the only thing I've noticed is that she wants to lick my face more than usual. I have no idea if that's related or not, and while it's annoying, it's also manageable. The only side effect that might yet show up is muscle wasting. I hope we don't get that!

Of course, Maisy had two issues last month, the other being her bladder stones. She is still on her very restricted diet, and she will need regular UAs and other monitoring. However, this is a highly manageable condition, if expensive. I now have three jobs. It sucks, but what can I do?

Crystal Thompson, CPDT-KA
 That's right! I got my exam results back this week (hey, I took the professional dog training exam the first day Maisy was sick, remember?), and I passed. I am now officially a CPDT-KA. I am thrilled to report that I got a 97% on it! Yay me!

Wait. I missed one on learning theory?

All in all, it's been a great week. Hopefully things continue going this well!

The CPDT-KA Exam Experience

On Monday, September 9^th, two big things happened in my life. First, and most significantly, Maisy was admitted to the ICU at the University of Minnesota Veterinary Medical Center. Because of this, the second thing- taking the CPDT-KA exam- went from being the centerpiece of my week to completely unimportant.

I’m honestly glad the exam was scheduled when it was. Maisy seemed unwell Monday morning, but she was not yet critically ill. I left her at my vet’s office for testing while I took the exam, and had complete confidence that she was in good hands. Had the exam been scheduled even a single day later, I likely wouldn’t have taken it at all (it’s harder and/or more expensive to reschedule than you might think).

I can’t tell you much about the exam itself because the Code of Ethics I signed requires that I keep the contents confidential. For the most part, the exam was as I expected: computerized, 250 multiple choice questions, with the content being fairly close to what was listed in the candidate’s handbook.

The exam is computerized, which is nice because you can “flag” questions to review before finishing the exam. I flagged questions that I wasn’t 100% sure about the answer. Because I’m a worry-wart, at the end I used that to estimate my score: about 85%. I reviewed the questions, unflagging the ones I was pretty confident about, and it went up to 91%. So I think (hope!) I passed… but they don’t tell you what a passing score is, and they don't send the results until 4-6 weeks later.

It took me about 1.5 (out of the allowed 4) hours to complete. I really should have used more of my time to review the entire exam instead of just the flagged questions, but my brain was fried. Part of this is because the type on the screen was HUGE and there was no obvious way to change it; while it makes sense that they want to make it accessible to folks with all visual abilities, it was pretty distracting for me and therefore made it harder for me to concentrate. Well, that, and I was concerned about Maisy and wanted to leave so I could call my vet for news (phones aren’t allowed in the examination room).

There were a few questions that I just don’t understand how they fit into the content areas outlined in the handbook. I’m sure they do- the test is pretty rigorously reviewed- but I have no idea HOW. There were a few in the husbandry section that seemed oddly specific for a dog training exam. As expected, there were a couple where there seemed to be more than one correct answer, but there were also one or two where NONE of the answers seemed right.

I wish I had some good advice or tips for those who have yet to take the exam, but I just don’t. I guess if pressed, my advice would be: don’t schedule it for over a meal time (mine was scheduled to go from 10am to 2pm, and I was getting hungry by the end), start studying much further in advance than I did, read the questions and answers thoroughly before answering (just generally a good idea), and relax. It’s just an exam, albeit an expensive one. Trust me, there are FAR more important things in the world. My dog being alive is one of those, and just hours after the exam that was no longer a given in my life.

But Maisy is improving, and there is nothing left for me to do to prepare for the exam. So now I begin the arduous task of waiting… 

If you took the exam, what did you think? Any advice for future test takers? 

CPDT Study Session #8: Ethical Considerations and Humane Treatment

There are many, many ways to modify a problem behavior. So how is a dog trainer to choose one? The Certification Council for Professional Dog Trainers has created a hierarchy of humane responses. It requires that all CPDTs use the least invasive methods first, only moving along to the more invasive procedures if those fail to work.

1. Address any underlying health, nutritional, or physical contributors to the problem behavior first. It’s common knowledge that there can be medical causes for problem behaviors; for example, pain and thyroid issues are discussed widely as potential causes of aggression. Rather than creating a training plan- even one rooted in positive reinforcement based methods- it’s more humane to address those health issues.

2. Manipulate the antecedents. Or, in plain English, if there is an external factor causing the problem, fix that first! So much better to shut the curtains to stop your dog from barking out the windows all day than to use a bark-control collar, no?

3. Use positive reinforcement to teach the dog what you want them to do.Notice how this is halfway through the list? It’s not because it’s wrong to use R+, but rather because it is more invasive than the other options.

4. Implement differential reinforcement of an alternate behavior. This is similar to R+ but since it also includes an element of extinction/negative reinforcement, it’s considered slightly more invasive.

5. Use negative punishment, negative reinforcement, and/or extinction. All three of these use some kind of aversive control, and are therefore considered more invasive than the previous options.

6. Reduce the problematic behavior through the use of positive punishment. Note that P+ is allowed. That said, it is meant to be an option of final resort.

There are some procedures which CPDTs are prohibited from using. These include lifting a dog by the collar, leash, or fur so that two or legs are held off the ground. Swinging the dog, hanging the dog, or restricting the dog’s airway is likewise prohibited. Shock/electronic collars are allowed, but not without using less invasive methods first. A CPDT cannot use more than one at a time, or apply one to the genitals or abdomen. Pinching the dog’s toes, ears, or other body part in order to cause or end a behavior. Holding the dog’s head under water for any period of time is disallowed, as is using a cattle prod on the dog.

I rather like the approach the CCPDT has taken. It shows a definite bias towards positive methods (which I obviously prefer), but does not take tools out of anyone’s toolbox. Although I have no intention of ever using a shock collar on a dog, as I’ve learned more about training and behavior, I’m less and less likely to say “never.” I appreciate having a rational approach that makes suggestions on various types of methods to try before moving on. I especially appreciate the emphasis on addressing health problems and management; I feel like those are often overlooked.

I’m not entirely sure how I feel about negative reinforcement being so far down the list. On one hand, I see the point: R- requires there to be an aversive. On the other hand, I think there’s a big difference between purposefully introducing an aversive and removing one that’s already in the environment (such as in BAT).

I’m also glad to see that there are some limits to what can be done. They seem to prohibit only the most egregious options (read: abusive) for use in routine training. And really. Cattle prods? Shocks to the balls? I shudder to think about it. There needs to be a line drawn and this one seems fair. Of course, I would prefer not to use a shock collar at all, but I can see why someone living in rattlesnake country might consider one.

But what do you think? Where would you draw the line? Does this hierarchy go too far? Not far enough? Would love to hear some thoughts.

CPDT Study Session #7: Husbandry

I'm in the home stretch for the exam. I take the exam on Monday, so with less than a week to go and three sections left to review, well... honestly, I'm not worried. Studying has actually helped me feel more confident than less- it's been mostly review!

The husbandry portion of the exam counts for 6% of the final grade and covers general health, grooming, and nutrition. The information from today's post is from Terry Ryan's book and this section in particular was written by RK Anderson and Margaret Duxbury, Maisy's former vet behaviorist and my friend.

The running theme of this section is that as a trainer, you should not try to take on duties outside of your area of expertise. This means that unless you've received the education required to be a vet, groomer, or nutritionist in your area, you should refrain from giving specific advice and instead refer to the appropriate professional. This is especially true when it comes to health information. 

Infectious Diseases and Prevention
A dog exhibiting symptoms of an infectious disease (distemper, parvo, etc.) should not come to class and instead be referred to his veterinarian. The symptoms will vary among disease, but in general, lethargy, vomiting, diarrhea, nasal discharge, and coughing are causes for at least a call to the vet.

Parvo is of special concern as it is highly contagious and can quickly result in dead dogs, especially with puppies. Do not allow sick puppies in class and clean up all areas well if a dog becomes sick afterwards. A solution of 1 part bleach to 30 parts water will kill parvo.

Vaccinations are the best way to prevent infectious diseases. Although I am concerned about over-vaccination, I do believe in vaccinations, especially for puppies. Side effects in healthy dogs are rare and generally minor, and for me, the risks outweigh the benefits. But, personal choices aside, as a professional trainer, you should not put your clients' dogs at risk. Require vaccinations (or titers, but remember that there are fewer studies on the efficacy of using these to determine adequate antibody levels) for all dogs in your classes.

The core vaccines are distemper, hepatitis, parvo, and rabies. All dogs should have these. Depending on other factors- best discussed with a vet, not a trainer- non-core vaccines like lyme, lepto, bordatella, parainfluenza, etc. might make sense.

Because puppies are born with maternal antibodies, and because we don't know exactly when these will wear off in each individual, puppies get a series of shots. The core vaccines (excluding rabies, which should be given after 12-16 weeks) should be given every 3 to 4 weeks starting between 6 to 8 weeks until 12 to 14 weeks. They should be repeated at 1 year and then every 1 to 3 years after that. While socialization is extremely important, puppies should not begin classes until at least 1 week after their first set of vaccines. Thankfully, this means puppies should be able to attend classes starting at 7 to 9 weeks; plenty of time to take advantage of that critical socialization window.

Parasites
Parasites fall into two main categories: internal and external. Prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of these are the responsibility of the veterinarian.

Among the internal parasites we have heartworm (which effects the cardiovascular and respiratory systems) and gastrointestinal worms (which can impede nutrition, causing further problems). The latter type are quite common and can be spread to humans, especially those with compromised immune systems.

External parasites include fleas and ticks and can cause allergies, transmit diseases like lyme, transmit tapeworms, and/or cause anemia due to blood loss.

To Spay or Not to Spay?
Again, this is a conversation best left to the medical professionals, if for no better reason than it is an incredibly complex issue and one that I simply don't have the space/time/education to write about fully. That said, a dog can be spayed or neutered as early as 6-8 weeks, though generally we look at it as happening either before or after puberty.

Neutering will reduce mounting, marking, and fighting behaviors in 50 to 60% of male dogs, and will reduce roaming in 90% of dogs. It will not calm the dog down. It will reduce the risk of certain infections, prostrate issues, and (obviously) testicular cancer. Spaying will protect a female dog against uterine cancer and pyometra, and if done before the first heat will reduce the risk of mammary cancer. The behavioral benefits of spaying a dog are far less clear.

Medical Conditions that Impact Training
Once again, Terry Ryan's book cautions trainers against making a diagnosis of any particular medical concern. In addition to some of the reasons identified above, it's also due to the fact that there are a lot of different conditions that can result in similar behaviors. Any of these conditions can change behavior or limit a dog's ability to learn, making even the best training less effective.

Among these are hydrocephalus, epilepsy, liver disease, hypoglycemia, hypothyroid, and cushings. Likewise, drugs like steroids, tranquilizers, or benzodiazepines can cause behavior changes. Issues related to aging can cause problems, especially when looking at changing sensory capabilities. Pain is a huge factor in behavior and learning abilities of dogs. Finally, though readers of this blog likely need no reminder, emotional issues like fear and anxiety will also impact training.

Nutrition
Oh, the can of worms that can be opened here. I have a lot of opinions on this subject, and you probably do, too. Suffice it to say that likely the biggest concern here is the dog's weight, especially carrying too much. A fat dog will contribute to medical conditions, pain, and limit a dog's ability to do certain activities.

Grooming
Finally, Terry Ryan's book is silent on this issue. So. Um. Cut your dog's nails? Don't let them get mats in their fur? Teach the dog to accept handling (ah! a training issue!). Beats me and good luck to us all!

CPDT Study Session #6: Why Do Dogs Do That?

In her book Coaching People to Train Their Dogs, Terry Ryan identifies a number of reasons a dog might behave in a certain way. Let's look at those today.

Phylogenic behaviors are those that have developed over generations and therefore have evolutionary significance. These behaviors can be broken down into three main categories.

The first is food acquisition. This is a fixed series of behaviors that seems to be hard-wired in most dogs. The sequences goes like this: Search or find prey – stalk prey to get as close to it as possible – rush towards the prey – chase after the prey (because it likely took off when it saw the dog rushing) – bite/hold/shake/kill the prey – and dissect and eat the prey. This sequence can often be found in dog play, either with other dogs or with toys (which explains why so many dogs like to de-stuff their toys).

The second is hazard avoidance, in which the dog will avoid danger and/or seek safety and comfort, and the third is reproductive behaviors, for obvious reasons. Both of these will influence a dog's behavior quite a bit; testosterone often causes male dogs to mount, mate, and mark while estrogen and progesterone will cause a female dog to go into heat about twice a year for 20 days duration. During this time, the female's behavior towards a male will be quite... flirty.

Another reason dogs may do something is because it is an otogenic behavior. This is a fancy term for learned behaviors, although not necessarily trained behaviors. An otogenic behavior is one developed due to the influence of environmental factors. While a phylogenic behavior will be shared among all dogs, otogenic behaviors are specific to an individual.

Next, we have fixed action patterns (or instinctive motor patterns). These are patterns of behaviors that are triggered by something specific. The sequence needs to be completed before the dog will stop the pattern. The pattern is fixed, that is, it doesn't vary much (if at all) from time to time. That said, behavior modification can change a fixed action pattern. The food acquisition series I described above is a fixed action pattern.

A dog's temperament can also influence behavior. Temperament is a tricky thing, consisting of a mix of genes and environment, but a dog with a shy temperament will behave differently than one with a bold temperament.

Finally, we have instinctive drift, first discussed by the Brelands in their paper The Misbehavior of Organisms. Instinctive drift is what happens when an animal's innate behavior is so strong that overcomes a learned behavior, even when there is a reinforcer offered for the learned behavior.

Those are the reasons Terry Ryan identified as causes of behavior. Have you come across any others?

CPDT Study Session #5: How Did Dogs Become Dogs?

Answer: We don't really know. But we have lots of theories.

Let's start with what exactly domestication is. Wild animals can either be tamed or domesticated. A tame animal is an individual who has gotten used to humans. A domesticated animal is part of a species whose involvement with humans has resulted in extensive behavioral and biological changes.

We do know that dogs were once wolves, and we know that they are domesticated because of the many profound changes they've undergone. Physically, most dogs look quite dissimilar to wolves. Their ears can be floppy, their faces are shorter, their tails may be curled over their backs, their coats have far more color patterns. In short, they physically look more like wolf puppies than adult wolves.

This tendency towards puppy-ness is called paedomorphism, and it also describes wolf vs. dog behavior. Wolves are more physically active, mouthier, more destructive, have far more desire to roam, and are generally more wary of new experiences than are dogs.

As for when domestication happened, well, according to fossil evidence, domestication happened 12,000 to 14,000 years ago. According to DNA analysis, it happened around 80,000 to 130,000 years ago. So who knows!

There are three main hypotheses about how wolves became dogs:

The Village Dog Hypothesis suggests that wolves hung around human settlements, scrounging for food. The boldest, friendliest wolves were more likely to live (as the ones who threatened villagers were likely killed), and they slowly evolved into dogs.

In the Hunting Hypothesis, wolves and humans developed a symbiotic relationship. Either wolves began following the humans or the humans began following the wolves while hunting. They tolerated one another because each could offer the other an advantage in hunting. Again, the wolves that worked cooperatively with humans would have a better chance of breeding.

Finally, we have the Nurturing Hypothesis, in which wolf pups whose mothers were killed would be brought back to the village to be raised, likely by children or women. The more docile pups would live to adulthood to pass on their genes.

So there is your down-and-dirty overview on how dogs (maybe) became dogs.

CPDT Study Session 4: Puppy Development

5 months old and venturing off on her own.

I'm currently starting the two weeks I've set aside to study ethology, and I decided to tackle the section that I felt weakest in: puppy development. I went through every book in my personal library that looked like it might have information on this topic and read through the relevant sections. As it turns out, this website was probably the most useful. (I also looked at Coaching People by Terry Ryan, Off-Leash Dog Play, by Bennett and Briggs, Dogs by the Coppingers, and Successful Dog Adoptions by Sue Sternberg.

In all this reading, I discovered a sneaky truth: there are no hard-and-fast timelines, nor even agreement on what each stage is called. The first part wasn't really a surprise, but I was a bit taken aback by the fact that there are so many ways to break down a puppy's development. I'm going to try to synthesize this material into something cohesive, but you should keep in mind that these periods can overlap, and that the breed of the dog will influence the timelines.

 Neonatal Period, birth to 14 days
The neonatal period is rather boring, truth be told. In this stage, a puppy's eyes are closed and he is functionally deaf. He is completely dependent on his mother, and researchers have found little to no classical conditioning happening at this stage (at least, not in a way they could use). The puppy's task at this time is to develop some basic mobility and sensory awareness.

Transitional Period, 14 to 21 days

The transitional period begins when the puppy's eyes open and ends when he startles at noises. This usually takes place between 2 and 3 weeks. The pup's eyes will be a hazy or cloudy blue color, and will remain that way until 6 to 8 weeks. The teeth begin to form this point, and the sensory capabilities continue to develop.

Socialization Period, 3 weeks to ?? weeks
During this period of time, which most sources agree starts around 3 weeks, the puppy's brain develops rapidly. Although a puppy is born with basically all the brain cells he will ever have, the brain volume increases greatly due to the synaptic connections that are being physically formed. The Coppingers did brain scans and found that when a puppy is born, his brain volume is 8 cubic centimeters. By 2 months, it's 50 cubic cm, 80 cubic cm by 4 months, and 100 cubic cm at 12 months, which tends to be its final amount.

The connections that are being formed are due to socialization. This is where the puppy basically learns safe vs. not safe. If he encounters novel people/dogs/animals/surfaces/objects/sounds/etc. and has a good experience, that thing becomes classified as safe. If he encounters something and has a bad experience, that thing becomes not safe. If he doesn't encounter a certain thing at all, it will default to the not safe category. This is where behavioral problems like fear or aggression can come from.

 The socialization window ends anywhere from 10 to 16 weeks. Dehasse says that studies have shown that between 3 to 5 weeks, a puppy will investigate just about anything without much hesitancy. At 7 to 9 weeks, the puppy needs more time to overcome his uncertainty (Dehasse uses the the word “fear”) and investigate a novel person. At 12 weeks, the puppy can overcome his fear, but only with “active manipulation” from the person. At 14 weeks, Dehasse says that socialization to people is nearly impossible if the dog hasn't already experienced them.

 The Coppingers assert that by 16 weeks, a dog's personality is set for life. If he's timid at 16 weeks, he'll be timid at 3 years. They acknowledge that training and behavior modification can change the dog's personality, but are quick to say that the dog will have a social “accent” for the rest of his life. I really, really like that phrase, because it's a great way of describing how a dog can change yet still have lingering effects from the past.

Other things that happen during this stage:
At 3 weeks of age, the puppies begin to play with one another. From now until 7 weeks, they are developing bite inhibition. This is why it is so important that puppies stay with their litter for at least this long.

 Mother dogs tend to initiate weaning at about 5 weeks. She does this by growling or snapping at her pups, especially when their sharp little puppy teeth hurt her teats. In response, the pups will roll over in deference. A puppy who is force weaned by being separated from his mom tends to show a reduction in appeasement behaviors; he has literally not learned how to do them. This can create issues in social hierarchies down the road.

 House training happens during this stage as well. In the neonatal period, Momma Dog stimulates elimination. Around 2 to 3 weeks, elimination becomes spontaneous on the part of the puppy, and very soon after, the puppy will leave the bedding area to eliminate. By 8 weeks, the puppy will have developed substrate preferences for elimination. This is why it is so hard to house train a mill or pet store puppy; he has literally learned to pee where ever he is at the moment.

Fear Periods Multiple, but first one 7 to 12 weeks
This is probably where the biggest variation between puppies occurs. Although puppies will go through several fear periods- defined as a time when the puppy is especially sensitive to bad experiences- they vary in timing and number. Dehasse argues that the first fear period begins when the socialization period ends; around 12 weeks. The Coppingers, on the other hand, suggest that the first fear period starts around 7 weeks.

 The owner's job during this time, whenever it happens, is to prevent or minimize bad experiences as much as possible. Bad experiences tend to be traumatic at this time and has a lifelong impact on behavior. There is at least one more fear period (and sometimes more than one) between 6 and 14 months, which roughly correlates with puberty.

Hierarchy and Status Development, 3 to 4 months
Bennett and Briggs were the only ones to label this as a separate developmental period, although Dehasse did allude to it. During this time, dogs start to figure out who they are in relation to other dogs. They also begin teething during this time as their incisors come in.

Flight Instinct or Exploration Period, 4 to 8 months
Puppy develops some independence during this period. He changes from the sweet shadow that follows you everywhere to no longer needing the immediate protection of his owner. This manifests itself as a desire to explore territory, and he will venture further and further away. This is the period where dogs begin to “blow off” their recall cues and find being chased a grand game!

Puberty, 6 to 12 months
During this time, pups begin to figure out all things sexual. An unspayed female will go into heat for the first time around now. Dogs will also begin to show wariness of the unknown. Dehasse says this isn't so much a behavioral fear as it is a cognitive process.

Social Maturity, 1 to 3 years
Social maturity very much depends on the breed, with smaller dogs tending to enter social maturity before bigger dogs. During this time, we see the effects of the earlier periods, and especially the results of our socialization efforts (or lack thereof) and experiences during the fear periods. This means it's when reactivity or aggression tends to rear its ugly head.

CPDT Study Session #3: Important or Not?

Last weekend, I read Excelerated Learning by Pam Reid. As a side note, this was the first book I ever read on dog training, and it took me two months to get through it… and even then, I didn’t understand much of it. This time around, it took less than two days, and most of it was review.

But there was one section that I found very enlightening (and which I cross referenced against several other books): the processes of habituation, adaptation, and sensitization. Each of these is a way that a dog determines whether or not something is important or not, and how to respond.

Habituation happens when a dog “gets used to” something. Typically, the stimulus they get used to is something that initially causes either a startle or orienting response (“Woah, what’s that?”) but not outright fear. Through repeated exposure, the dog learns that the stimulus is not important and quits reacting to it.

The author gave the example of dropping your keys on the kitchen floor; the loud noise would likely cause your dog to jump or whip around to look at what just happened. If you were to drop your keys every thirty seconds, your dog might realize that nothing bad happens to him, and so the noise has no significance. This is habituation.

Habituation is prone to spontaneous recovery. That is, if your dog habituates to the sound of dropping keys on Monday, but then you don’t drop them again until Friday, chances are pretty good that he would startle or look for the source of the sound again.

Learned irrelevance is similar to habituation. When a dog has learned that something is irrelevant, he doesn’t react to it. However, unlike habituation, the stimulus originally caused little (if any) reaction. This means that stimuli that have been subjected to learned irrelevance are not susceptible to spontaneous recovery. The most common example of this is a dog learning that cue words have no consequence or meaning because they’ve been introduced so poorly or repeated so often.

Although adaptation is often used interchangeably with sensitization, they are not the same thing. I have a decent collection of books on dog training and ethology, and even so, only this book and Ken Ramirez’s book on animal training distinguished between the two.

Adaptation does not involve learning (as habituation does). Instead, it is a physical process in which the sensory neurons get overloaded. For example, people who smoke typically don’t notice the smell that clings to them while non-smokers notice it right away. This is because the smokers have adapted to the smell.

The opposite of habituation is sensitization. Instead of getting used to something, the dog’s reaction to the stimulus becomes stronger. Using the example of the keys, if a dog is becoming sensitized to them, each subsequent time you drop them, he will go startling to more intense reactions like barking or running away.

This is part of why expecting a dog to “just get over” something can backfire; instead of teaching them the stimulus is nothing to worry about, they get worse. Stimuli that elicit strong emotional responses tend to sensitize. The problem, of course, is that you don’t always know when something will do this. If your dog was a rescue, and if his previous owners threw keys at him to punish him, he might have a strong response to that and sensitize to it.

Of course, it may have nothing to do with a previous experience; anxious dogs are likely predisposed to sensitization instead of habituation. The author notes that sensitized dogs tend to over-react to many things, and often this is a very generalized response instead of stimulus-specific.

Finally, since we’re talking about the idea of “just get over it,” a discussion on flooding is worthwhile. Also known as response prevention, flooding is an extinction procedure in which the dog is forced to be around a stimulus the startles or scares it. Because the dog is prevented from escaping an uncomfortable stimulus, they often get worse; being trapped is scary.

This isn’t to say that flooding never works- it can- but the author states that it only works if the dog becomes exhausted and unable to respond. Personally, I am so not interested in doing that to my dog, but even if was willing to do it, the risk of learned helplessness is too great.

Learned helplessness happens when a dog is subjected to aversive stimuli that has nothing to do with his behavior, his behavior has no effect in preventing or stopping it, and he’s unable to escape. Dogs who develop learned helplessness become shut down and “just take it.”

And that’s your quick crash course on what happens when a dog decides if something is important (or not). Anyone else out there read Excelerated Learning? What was the biggest thing you took away from it?

CPDT Study Session #2: Schedules of Reinforcement

I’m in the middle of the two week period of time I’ve set aside to study for the learning theory part of the exam. I actually haven’t done much reading yet, both because I’ve been busy and because I’m pretty confident about my knowledge in this section. One thing I did want to firm up was my understanding of basic schedules of reinforcement. These schedules specify the timing and frequency of reinforcement, and each type can be useful in the right situation.

Continuous Reinforcement Schedules (CRF)

Most training starts here, with the continuous rate of reinforcement. This means that every time the dog does the behavior, he gets reinforced. It works best during the teaching phase, and it helps establish a strong contingency between the behavior and the reinforcer.

If you use a continuous reinforcement schedule, keep in mind that these behaviors are quite susceptible to “extinction,” which means that if you stop reinforcing the behavior, the dog is going to stop the behavior. Since it can be difficult to be sure that you reinforce every instance of a behavior, this schedule is a bit impractical. This is why most trainers switch to some kind of variable reinforcement schedule, but it is possible to use a continuous rate for the life of an animal (indeed, it’s what the Baileys- arguably some of the best animal trainers of the 20th century- used most of the time).

Partial (or Intermittent) Schedules (PRF)

There are several types of partial (sometimes called intermittent) reinforcement schedules. Although each type is distinct from the others, they do have several things in common. These are used when a continuous schedule is simply too cumbersome, for whatever reason. They are more resistant to extinction, and they typically feel more “natural” to people. You do need to be cautious that you don’t “thin” the schedule too quickly as this will cause “ratio strain” and degrade the quality of the behavior.

Fixed Ratio (FR)

A fixed ratio is when the reinforcer is given after a certain number of behaviors. The number after the abbreviation informs you how many behaviors need to be done before reinforcement is earned. For example, an FR5 means the dog must do five sits (or whatever) before receiving his treat.

Fixed ratios will produce high, steady rates of responding due to their systematic, consistent, and predictable nature. That said, fixed ratios also have a “post reinforcement pause” where the dog will briefly stop doing the behavior immediately after being reinforced. Their response time will increase as they approach the next opportunity for reinforcement. If your ratio is very high (such as an FR400), the post reinforcement pause will be longer.

Variable Ratio (VR)

In a variable ratio, the frequency of treats given is variable from trial to trial and should happen after an unpredictable number of times. It’s typically done around an average number of times. For example, a VR4 would mean that the treats are given approximately 1 out of 4 responses. During a series of behaviors, the treat may be given on the 2nd repetition, the 6th repetition, and then the 4th repetition.

Variable ratios yield high, steady rates of responding, and there is a much lower rate of post response pauses. This schedule is also more resistant to extinction and useful for fading out a fixed ratio schedule. That said, a truly variable ratio is difficult to achieve as we humans tend to be pattern dependent.

Fixed Interval (FI)

In a fixed interval, reinforcement is given after a certain period of time. An FI5 would indicate that reinforcement is given for the first correct behavior after 5 seconds (or minutes, depending) has passed since the last reinforcement.

Interval schedules (both fixed and variable) are great for teaching duration behaviors. A fixed interval is prone to extinction, though, and has a pronounced post reinforcement pause. In this case, the pause is “scallop-shaped;” the behavior levels off in the first bit of time, and then increases in frequency as the time for reinforcement comes due. This is similar to a student checking the clock more frequently when class is almost over.

Variable Interval (VI)

In this schedule, reinforcement is given on an average amount of time, which means the first correct behavior after an unpredictable amount of time has passed is reinforced. Like the variable ratio, a VI4 would mean that the reinforcement happens approximately every 4 seconds (minutes, etc.), but that the amount of time elapsed will change from trial to trial.

This schedule produces a slow, steady rate of responding, although you don’t tend to get a particularly high rate of behavior. It has good resistance to extinction, making it particularly good for fading out a fixed interval schedule. Like the variable ratio, it can be difficult to be truly unpredictable.

When I get around to it, I’ll post about the differential reinforcement schedules. There are quite a few of these, and they are arguably more interesting than these more basic schedules. But for now- what are you guys studying?

CPDT Study Session #1: Instruction Skills

The section on instruction skills counts for 32% of the exam. The CCPDT’s study objectives indicate that there are three main components to instruction skills: interpersonal skills, teaching skills, and managing the training environment. To study, I read chapters 5, 6, and 7 of Terry Ryan’s book Coaching People to Train Their Dogs. I was a bit underwhelmed by what I read, which I take as a good sign. After all, if there was nothing new, that means I’m in good shape, right? Anyway, since this portion of the exam counts for a third of the final score, let’s take a deeper look at what is covered and what I read about.

Interpersonal Skills

This subsection includes verbal and written communication skills and interacting with clients. It includes an emphasis on client compliance, classroom management, and clients with special needs. I feel confident about this section (this is what I did for four years in social work school, so…).

Things I read about: tips to remember the humans’ names, things that get in the way of effective verbal communication, things that prevent you from listening effectively, and tips for handling an emotional or difficult student.

As a social worker, I do that last one a lot. The author recommend the acronym STOP:

(look for) Signals that you’re getting upset,

Take control of your own emotions,

(act) Opposite to your signals, and

Practice doing this in low-confrontation situations!

I think that’s pretty good advice. Being mindful of my own feelings and reactions helps me work with my clients better. I will occasionally find that I dislike working with someone; when I stop to think about why, I will find that something about them triggers my own stuff. (We all have stuff.) Knowing that can help me either get past that or request a reassignment in cases. Deep breathing, pausing before I reply, and using a calm, quiet voice will go a long way to defusing situations. This is because people tend to mirror one another’s feelings, and I want to be the one controlling the emotional tone.

I also liked the section on working with people with disabilities. I have been doing so professionally since 2001, and I thought the author did a nice job of briefly summarizing the various things you need to think about when helping someone with a disability train their dog. You need to consider the physical, environmental, and intellectual needs of handlers with disabilities. From the person’s ability to use training equipment and props to their need for additional space due to adaptive equipment to the pace at which they learn, there’s a lot to consider.

Teaching Skills

Here the exam addresses learning styles, the development of curriculum, handouts, and homework, knowledge of available resources, and the selection and use of demo dogs.

The author wrote that there are three main learning styles: auditory, visual, and kinesthetic (doing). A good instructor will ensure that each lesson includes all three styles. I did appreciate that she pointed out that for some of us, knowing why is just as important as knowing how.

I really appreciated that when she discussed the pros and cons of using either your own dog or a student’s dog for demonstrations, she pointed out the need to consider the stress levels of the dogs. Maisy can be a demo dog, but she’s not crazy about waiting around for her two minutes to shine.

The author also gave a number of suggestions for both developing handouts and assigning homework. I did find her homework section interesting, as she suggested ways to do so that I had not considered before. You can tell students to practice until they reach a particular goal, to practice for a certain amount of time each day, to do a certain number of repetitions, or challenge them to beat their own personal best records.

Managing the Training Environment

Finally, we look at the safety, physical layout, and distractions or disruptions that may happen in a training facility. She talked about what you should consider when choosing a site, whether indoor or outdoor will better meet your needs, and how to set the space up so dogs will be successful. She recommends the use of signs and props to create stations or designated walkways, which is pretty brilliant.

She also talked about preventing and breaking up dog fights, as well as what to do afterwards. Thankfully, I’ve never had to break up a fight in class, but it was nice to read about it anyway.

The section on distractions or disruptions was okay. She talked a lot about kids in class (I don’t see this much, but probably because I teach primarily reactive dog classes) and students who are talking too much. I have honestly found that my biggest interrupters come from outside the class: when I taught at PetSmart, it was customers, and now it’s people that are using the space we rent or people who wander in looking for the business next door (we keep the door locked now!).

Anyway, that’s some of what I read for this section. What about you guys? Anything interesting? Any books that I absolutely need to get my hands on? For the next two weeks, I'm going to brush up on Learning Theory. I feel very, very, very confident about this section, but let's do this anyway. 

T-Minus 7 Weeks!

In less than seven weeks, the fall testing period for the CPDT-KA exam starts. I have signed up to take the exam, and based on feedback from my Facebook friends, a lot of you are, too. Because so many of us are in the same boat, I thought I’d post about what I’m studying each week so we can share resources and thoughts!


Here’s my study schedule so far:

Week 1 and 2: Instruction Skills 32%
This week and next week, I’ll be reviewing instruction skills. 32% of the exam will be on this. According to the official study objectives, this includes interpersonal skills, teaching skills, and managing the training environment. As a social worker, I’m pretty confident in this area; my people skills are excellent.

Week 3 and 4: Learning Theory 32%
This section of the exam covers reinforcement, punishment, operant and classical conditioning, cues, management, and training problems. I’m confident that I could do this section in my sleep, but even so, I’m going to review for it!

Weeks 5 and 6: Ethology 20%
Another section I feel pretty good about, it covers domestication, development, and body language. I will definitely brush up on the development portion, but I think I’ll be fine here.

Week 7: Equipment 7%, Husbandry 6%, Business Practices and Ethics 3%
These are probably my weaker areas, so thank goodness they are also the smaller portion of the test.

My main study plan is to read the book Coaching People to Train Their Dogs, by Terry Ryan. Rumor has it that the test runs pretty close to the book. If I have time, I will also read (or re-read, as the case may be) Excel-erated Learning, by Pam Reid, and Dogs: A New Understanding of Canine Origin, Behavior and Evolution, by the Coppingers, plus whatever else is on my bookshelf that looks useful.

If you’re taking the exam, give me a holler! Let’s share study tips in the comment section. I’m going to try to check in each Friday about what I’ve studied so far.

2012 Goals

What does 2012 hold in store for Maisy and I? Greatness, I’m sure of it! I have no idea what form that greatness will take, but I'm hoping it will look something like this...

1. Teach Maisy 12 tricks.
This was one of my goals last year, and I failed miserably at it. But Maisy loves to train, and anyway, we need to have something to show to friends and family members who just don’t appreciate a flashy heeling pattern.

I have a few ideas for tricks- like a bow, chin down, play dead, take it/hold it/give it with a variety of objects, spinning, leg weaves, crawling- but I would love to hear your ideas, too! Does your dog have a cool trick? Please, tell me about it in the comments.

2. Improve my heeling handling skills.
Although I took a class on heeling handling skills, I have yet to really use what I learned. Some of the moves are still difficult for me to do. It’s not that they’re awkward, exactly, it’s more that I just need to practice them so they’re second nature.

As I learn the skills, I also need to take time to integrate them with my work with Maisy. Some things don’t need to be explicitly taught to her, but others do, especially things like slow pace vs. halts. We're both going to be better at heeling this year.

3. Complete the Relaxation Protocol.
If there is anything I’m likely to fail at doing, it’s this one. I worked on the Relaxation Protocol once before, and oh my gosh, but it was mind-numbingly boring. Maisy probably doesn’t need to do the protocol, but I want to work on it for two reasons.

First, we haven’t worked on it since she started taking medication, and I want to see how that changes things. I imagine we’ll have a very different experience this time around. And second, I frequently advise students to do the protocol with their dogs, so I feel like I need to follow my own advice, you know?

4. Work on some Open and/or Utility Skills.
Maybe I’m getting ahead of myself, since we haven’t even completed our novice-level obedience title, but I’d like to start working on open and/or utility exercises this year. Well, we’ve already started working on some- like retrieves, the drop on recall, and directed jumping- but we haven’t worked on others at all.

I feel like we have a pretty good handle on how to start working on most of the open/utility skills… except go outs and scent articles. I know there are a ton of different ways to train both, and I’d love to hear how you taught your dog’s go out and/or scent articles. Which method did you use? Did you like it? Would you use it again? What were the benefits and drawbacks?

5. Take (and hopefully pass!) the CPDT exam.
I’m a little nervous to post this one publicly, but here it is. I’m hoping to take the CPDT-KA exam in the fall testing period. I don’t need it, strictly speaking, but I like the idea and the added credibility it lends me. And besides, this gives me a very good excuse for going to seminars!

If you are a CPDT (or if you’re in the process of studying for it), I’d love some book recommendations. I have a pretty good handle on learning theory, but am mildly concerned about some of the other sections. Let me know which books you’ve found helpful!


Anyway… this is what I’m hoping 2012 will bring. It might not, of course. So much can change over the course of a year that it’s hard to know what to expect. Still, this is the direction I'm hoping it will go. And if it doesn't? No big deal. As long as Maisy and I have had fun together, that's all that matters.